Being A Woman of Color

It is a shame that we live in a world where, for some reasons, people of color are disproportionately at disadvantage when it comes to equal access to education opportunity, health care, and adequate standard of living like healthy nutrition and clean environment. For instance, according to World Health Organization (WHO), (2014), the rate at which HIV/Aids is spreading in the region of Sub-Saharan Africa is very high compare to other parts of the world. 24.7 million People in this region are living with HIV/Aids according to the 2013 report. This makes Sub- Saharan Africa the most affected region in the world (WHO, 2014). The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), (2015), states,

In 2013, 21,836 African Americans were diagnosed with HIV, comprising the largest percentage (46%) of the estimated 47,352 diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States when viewed by race/ethnicity. The rate of HIV diagnoses among African Americans (55.9/100,000 people) was similarly disproportionate (CDC, 2015).

In South Africa, Amadi-Ihunwo, (2008), also explores how social culture, religious belief, and illiteracy affect the epidemic of HIV/Aids. For instance, knowledge and awareness of HIV/Aids in South African communities is very low and poor. Their ignorance of what this disease is, when compared to that of African Americans, is even worse. According to the author, some South Africans blame sicknesses and deaths that resulted from HIV/Aids infection on “witchcraft practices” (P. 255). There is also the belief that people who are infected with HIV/ Aids are dirty; and as a result, people tend to avoid having any kind of contact with them. According to Amadi-Ihunwo, (2008),

Most members of the school communities described those infected and in extreme cases those affected directly or indirectly, as sacred and protecting themselves from these sacred can only be possible when they are isolated (in play grounds, staff rooms, toilets and some sports arenas),not discussing about it openly but rather keeping silent about it (P. 256).

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

In Sub-Saharan African countries, the practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is not practiced for medical, sanitary, or therapeutic purposes; instead, it is practiced as a marrow of tradition and a significant part of the culture. FGM can be simply described as the circumcision of female. Berg and Denison, (2012), described FGM as a practice that “Involves the partial or total removal of, or injury to, the female external genital tissue for nontherapeutic purposes” (p. 135). World Health Organization (WHO), for instance, has described FGM as a practice or a procedure that has no medical or health benefits to women, but at the same time, causes great harm, pain, and several injuries to female genital area. The “Procedures can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, infertility as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths” (p. Fact sheet N°241).

In the international community, female genital mutilation (FGM) is considered as a cruel and unhuman practice. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the practice is a violation of human right. It destroys the dignity, life, and the pride of any woman or girl who experiences it. “It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women.” The webpage stated further that the practice violates the right of women to be free from torture, cruelty, and unusual punishment (WHO, 2014, P. Fact sheet N°241).

In addition, according to Berg and Denison, (2013), there are women and young girls who have been mutilated or circumcised among immigrant population living in civilized countries like the United States, France, and Australia. The author noted that the majority of these women and girls were subjected to genital mutilation when they traveled back to visit their native country (p. 838).

Actions of a Human Services Professional

There is no doubt that poverty, lack of education, and lack of adequate standard of living are significant factors that contribute to many challenges and disadvantages that women of color face in the world. A human services professional who is trying to create or contribute to significant changes, not just in the state and national level, but also in the international level, must promote changes and advocate for the eradication of world hunger, education of young men and women of color; and at the same time, promote the awareness of challenges that women of color faces. He or she can strive to promote awareness of these challenges through evidence-based research studies and publications, organizing awareness and educational movement, and lobbying and protesting peacefully at the United Nation events.

Ability to still maintain positive and fruitful sexual development can give a victim of female genital mutilation (FGM) the physical and mental hilling and strength that she needs. A helping professional working with a family that supports or practices female genital mutilation (FGM), must guide and educate the family about healthy sexual development and practices. It is important to educate the parents on how genital mutilation could physically and mentally affect the health and the sexual development of anyone who experience it. The first important step in providing counseling, guidance, and mental health rehabilitation to a victim who has experienced genital mutilation is to show compassion, understanding, and refrain from judgmental attitude.

Normally, when people seek professional counseling and guidance, they expect the counselor to have knowledge and understanding of their issue. They expect the counselor to be professional and be confidential in relating with their problem and concerns. Therefore, as a professional counseling practitioner, it is important to have awareness, knowledge and understanding of national and international issues that concerns women of color around the world. As noted by Berg and Denison, (2013), for instance, there are young and adult female population, who have been subjected FGM, in almost every society, and according to Mandell and Schram, (2012), human services professionals must possess positive attitude, personal values, skills, and knowledge needed to help this population (p. 111).

Effective Correctional Services

http://odedere.blogspot.com/

 Leadership Attributes for Effective Correctional Services

            Attitude and values of a supervisor, in a prison facility, is significant to the operation and effective management of that prison. Correctional managers and supervisors must possess leadership attributes that include positive attitude and competence mentality; they must have personal values and leadership skills. Leadership attributes that are most important for effective correctional management include active listening, empathy, capacity to deal with ambiguity and take risks, capacity to ask for help and offer feedback, open-mindedness, rejection of skepticism, and rejection of stereotypes. 

 Because correctional staff work in a very stressful and challenging environment, they are more likely to experience mental fatigue and burnout, compare to people who works in other human services fields. When correctional staff are stressed, they may start feeling irritated and stop caring about their work and responsibilities. They may start losing their professional bearing and make mistakes that can ultimately affect the safety and security of the prison facility. Therefore, it is the responsibilities of leaders and supervisors to inspire and manage a working environment that will encourage consistent professional attitude within a housing unit. Unit managers and supervisors are responsible for enforcing completion of task, in accordance with the policy and procedure; while at the same time, supervise and manage a working atmosphere that encourages high morale and positive attitude.

A good leader must possess the skill to pull subordinates together and inspire them to always strive for the best. He or she must become a team developer and a motivator. A good supervisor must put the need of his or her staff as priority while, at the same time, continues to build professional relationship with them. This is the most effective way to build unit cohesion and maintain positive attitude within a correctional housing unit.

Nevertheless, leaders and supervisors of correctional housing units must maintain a culture of reward and punishment within the unit. This includes, but not limited to, using verbal and nonverbal counseling, evaluating and documenting staff’ satisfactory and unsatisfactory performance, recommending reward and punishment that are fair and consistent, and constantly assigning disciplinary for unacceptable personal conducts. Correctional institutions are so large and complex that they require average of 300 staff to operate and manage. As a result, conducts that are unacceptable and staff performances that are unsatisfactory are sometimes inevitable. Thus, it is the responsibility of the leaders and managers to reduce or eliminate unacceptable personal conducts and unsatisfactory job performance within their housing unit. This can be done by constantly leading by example and effectively communicating what behavior or action is acceptable, and what is not.

Reid Mandell, B., & Schram, B. (2012). An introduction to human services: Policy and    practice (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Effective Correctional Services: Custody and Control of Inmates

 

Effective Correctional Services: Custody and Control of Inmates

 

The operation of a prison facility is significantly affected by three major components that include the correctional staffs, incarcerated offenders, and the prison facility itself (property). Every major incident, activity, or emergency that occur in a prison usually involves all these three essentials components, and without one or the other, an institution cannot function as a correctional institution. In other words, what makes an institution a correctional institution is the presence of correctional staffs and incarcerated offenders, interacting under the same roof, in a close vicinity.

Major interactions between offenders and correctional staffs usually take place in the housing units. Here, correctional officers engage with inmates. They intervene, manage, and resolve conflicts, crisis, and issues that arise between and among inmates. In the most of the time, a prison emergency would start from the housing unit, and when its starts, correctional staffs and their supervisors must be able to contain an emergency situation, deactivate it, and restore security and order. Once an emergency situation spreads beyond the control of housing unit staffs, it can easily become a threat to the public. According to the North Carolina Department of Public Safety, Office of Staffs Development and Training, (2017), major prison emergencies include escape, hostage situation, fire, inmate death, and inmate riot. At one particular time or the other, every prison facility will experience an emergency; however, a good leader and competent correctional staff will prevent the emergency from becoming a threat to the public.

Also, according to Gelfand, M. J., Leslie, L. M., Keller, K. & Dedreu, C. W. (2010), every organization, either small or large, has the potential and the tendency to experience crisis or emergency; however, it is the responsibility of leaders to strive to overcome it (P.5). Therefore, correctional staffs must be professional and be consistent in their daily interaction with incarcerated offenders. They must understand that there uppermost responsibility is to protect the public. This is the whole point of the department in the first place. This is why we are all here, to keep these highly dangerous convicts away from the general population.

 

Correctional Housing Unit Management

Maintaining the custody and control of incarcerated offenders on the housing unit is the most effective way to prevent an emergency and ultimately protect the public. This involves developing and implementing a standard of operation that encourages safe and secured atmosphere for inmates and correctional staffs. For instance, observation of inmates’ activities in their assigned cell and housing area, by custody staffs, should be feasible without any hindrance. Movement of offenders, from one area of the prison to another, should not post a safety risk or risk of escape; and all inmates, regardless of age, race, physical capability, or crime convicted of, should be able to live, in their housing unit, with peace of mind and free of threat, harassment, assault, or extortion from peers.

Maintaining the custody and control of incarcerated offenders on the housing unit also includes the provision of inmates’ needs, and management of inmates’ welfare. Incarcerated offenders have little or no ability to make their own decision, do whatever they wish to do, or live their live as they please. The have social and sometimes, physical limitations; they are unable to completely function as capable human beings; and as a result, they are needier than people in the community. Correctional Housing Unit Managers (CHUM) and supervisors must provide and be able to meet the needs of inmates assigned to their unit, in accordance with the department’s policy and guidelines. For instance, just like people in the community, inmates’ needs include personal hygiene products, food and essential nutrition, recreation activities materials, clothes and other essential daily products. It is the responsibility of a good CHUM to develop and implement a standard of operation that fosters the provision, supply, and maintenance of inmate needs and concerns.

Notwithstanding, detention, custody and control of inmates will not be possible without the use of mechanical control and restraints devices like cuffs, keys, and lock devices. It will not be possible without the use of communication devises like radio, telephone, and intercom paging system, and it will be extremely difficult without the use of inmates’ population and movement control system like electronically controlled doors, use of sally port, inmate holding cell, and the use of recreation and retention cages for high security control inmates. Thus, effective inmate management will not be possible without effective maintenance and management of available correctional resources, which includes correctional equipment, the housing unit area, assigned correctional staff, and the inmate population.
 

 Maintenance and management of inmate-control equipment, tools, and other assigned assets are important part of the responsibilities of supervisors and housing unit managers. A good leader must develop a plan and procedure for equipment control and accountability. In a prison facility, the potential for crisis and violence activities is very high. Dangerous and violent offenders are constantly looking for a way to disrupt the peace and smooth operation of the facility. They are always engaging in activities that pose threat to safety and security of the facility. Therefore, to prevent an emergency or a crisis situation, like escape, deadly assault on staff, or a hostage situation, proper control and accountability of security keys, restraints, radios, and other control station equipment must be maintained.


In addition, while it is important to control and account for assigned equipment, tools, and other assets, supervisors must develop and supervise equipment and assets refinement plan. For instance, assigned radio, restraints, locks, and other control devices must be managed and refined regularly. Broken radio, non-serviceable baton, or locking device that does not work can pose threat to safety and security, and it can hinder effective custody of inmates and safety of correctional staff. Therefore, leaders and supervisors must regularly conduct the inspection of their housing unit, supervise safety and custody drill, and maintain order and cleanliness of the unit.

References

Gelfand, M. J., Leslie, L. M., Keller, K. & Dedreu, C. W. (2010). Cultures of conflict: How         leaders and members shape conflict cultures in organizations. Academy of Management           Annual Meeting Proceedings, 1–6. Retrieved from the Walden Library using the        Business Source Complete database.

Department of Public Safety, Office of Staff Development and Training. (2017). Prison    Emergencies: Prevention and Response (822 PartII). Office of Staff Development and          Training: Adult Correction In-Service Training. Retrieved from            http://internal.doc.state.nc.us/osdt/lesson-plans/2017-2018/DPS-308-2017.pdf

 

Neo-Philosophical Argument

I believe the moral duty of a state, in the international community, can be grouped into two. We have maxima moral duty and minima moral duty; however, I am going to discuss in detail only the maxima moral duty of a state. The moral duties that states are required to do in the global community are called, the maxima moral duty of a state. They include the duty of a state not to attack or threatening the peace of another state, and the moral duty to intervene, with the intension of humanitarian liberation, when another state is massively violating the fundamental human right of its people. According to Christoffer Lammer-Heindel, all states have maxima moral duty, or what he described as the duty to assist when there is a massive human suffering or death (1).  


Human life is the most valuable commodity, resources, and end. It is a valuable source, capital, and means that led to the production and existence of all other valuable things. Morally, it should not be traded, exchanged, or substituted for anything. This is why all humans have the duty to protect human life whenever human life is in danger or being threatened. Let’s take a domestic analogy for example; you live in a city where there is no police or any kind of law enforcement body. Your neighbor is drowning in his swimming pool located at his backyard. If you are aware of this, and you can swim perfectly, and saving him would not cause a significant danger to your life, you have a moral duty to save his life. This analogy can be used when discussing the role of states, in the global community. All states that are militarily powerful and economically developed have a maxima moral duty (morally required) to rescue and provide aid assistance as best as they can whenever human life is in danger, or being threatening by disease, hunger, or death.

Moreover, as human life is very valuable and priceless, human right is also a necessity whenever there is an existence of human life. Whenever human life is being protected, preserved, and valued, the right of that life to live peacefully, happily, and securely must not be denied. Normally, one cannot say it values human life and at the same time, deprives human life its essential rights. Therefore, as it is a moral duty for all humans to protect human life, so it is a moral duty for all humans to make sure that the essential rights of human are not violated or deprived. However, a state is not just made up of a territory and a geographical location, but importantly a population or a community of human. So, if the government of a state is overwhelmed or cannot put an end to an atrocity or a massive violation of human right in its country, other states that are militarily capable and economically in good standing, have a maxima moral obligation to intervene on the basis of humanitarian intervention.

The US Moral Duty in the Darfur Region of Sudan

Between 2005 and 2006, Darfur region of Sudan was in a mist of civil war; there was what you can call high level atrocity and calamity. Death of human life was at the peak; there was a displacement of over 2 million people, and uncountable human life was loss due to hunger and deadly diseases. During this disastrous period, the Sudanese government was unable to provide aid and assistance to the people who were suffering. The government was unable to control and stop the militia group, Janjaweed, which was the mastermind of the chaos. In addition, not only was the government useless and ineffective in bringing this chaos to an end, it was accused of supporting the mass-murder of human life that was going on in the country (Schwartz).

Even recently, between the year 2015 and 2017, crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan continues. There are reports of use of chemical weapons against civilians while targeted killing of Christians and non-Arab Muslims continues (Gellar). Yet, the United States of America and other powerful and developed countries have done little or nothing to intervene (Carafano). The United States for instance, is economically and militarily powerful. She has adequate and sufficient resources to intervene in in the region, on the basis of saving human life and protecting human right without posing much risk to herself. Thus, the moral duty of protecting human life was in her hand and she should have intervened.

 

Refuting Opposing Argument

Sovereignty is one of the most important fundamental rights of a state. It is the foundation of the freedom of a state to be in the way it pleases (Haass 54). Using the domestic analogy for example, sovereignty is like the right of an individual to exist without being enslaved or controlled by another individual. Sovereignty is so essential in the global world that any political community that lacks sovereignty is not recognized as a state. A political community that lacks sovereignty can be governed, colonized, or controlled by another sovereign state. Therefore, it is important and it is a maxima moral duty for a state to recognize and respect the sovereign right of other states to be independent and not be threatened.

Thus, one could argue that if The United States were to perform her maxima moral duty and intervene in the Sudan crisis, it would have violated the sovereignty of Sudan. This argument cannot stand because a state can lose it sovereignty when it massively violates human right and destroys the life of its own people. As I have noted above that human life and human rights are the most important valuable means and end. Morally, no right should be favored above human rights, and there should be no other ends that are valued more than human life. Though sovereignty is a very important right to a state, human rights are much more important and should be valued more than sovereignty. Let’s use the neighbor analogy for example; during the time when your neighbor is drawing in his swimming pool, located at his backyard, saving his life should be the most important end to you at that moment. This means that during the moment when your neighbor is drowning, he has lost his right to privacy in his own home. Saving his life must be valued above his right to privacy. This domestic analogy can be used in the discussion of the situation in the Darfur region. The United States had a moral responsibility to intervene on the basis of saving human life and protecting human rights, without regards to the sovereignty of Sudan.

 

Furthermore, one could argue that if the United States had intervened in the region, it would have posed an enormous or deadly risk to the life of many American soldiers. While this is a true notion, it is a fallacy in the debate of international intervention. Whenever an individual agrees to become a combatant for its country, according to Uwe Steinhoff’s argument on moral equality of combatant, he or she becomes a legitimate target of war. He or she loses its right not to be killed (p. 346-350). He or she agrees to bear a dreadful risk upon its life by becoming a weapon of combat for its country. Therefore, during the time of war and peace, an individual soldier is expected to be loyal to its vow, which is to serve its country with its life. An individual soldier of the United States is to be regarded as a part of military weapon and armor of the U.S. government. For this reason, the risk that is posed to an individual soldier of a state, in the time of war or peace, should be regarded as less tragic than the risk that is posed to an individual civilian. Thus the risk that would be posed to individual soldiers of a state is not a sufficient reason for the state not to intervene on the basis of humanitarian liberation. 
Finally, whenever human life is in danger, or fundamental human right is being deprived or massively violated, anybody, any organization, or government that is in a capable position to bring the situation to an end has a maxima moral duty to do so. In conclusion, as war of self-defense is justifiable in the international community, humanitarian intervention is also justifiable. The United States and other developed and vigorous countries should intervene in the Darfur region of Sudan without waiting on the approval of the Sudanese government. Notwithstanding, one could argue that the United States and other capable countries did not strive to intervene in Darfur because they valued self-interest as a means and an end than human life. This means that the United States would rather intervene in Darfur with the purpose of promoting its own interest than merely saving human life.

 

 

Carafano, James J. "Failure to Denounce Religious Genocide Borders on Atrocious." TCA News Service, 24 Mar, 2016. SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.proxy169.nclive.org.


Gellar, Sheldon. "Genocide in Darfur, then and Now." Jerusalem Post (International), 14 May, 2017, pp. 14. SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks-sirs-com.proxy169.nclive.org.

Haass, Richard N. “Sovereignty” Foreign Policy; Washington Iss. 150,  (Sep/Oct 2005): 54-55.        https://search-proquest-com

Lammer-Heindel, Christoffer Spencer. "Does the state have moral duties? State duty claims and the possibility of institutionally held moral obligations." University of Iowa, 2012.
http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/3330.

Schwartz, Felicia. "Lawmakers Urge More Active U.S. Role in Ending Sudan's Violence." Wall Street Journal Online, 04 May, 2016, pp. n/a. SIRS Issues Researcher, https://sks  sirscom.proxy169.nclive.org.

Steinhoff, Uwe. “Rights, Liability, and the Moral Equality of Combatants” The Journal of Ethics; Dordrecht Vol. 16, Iss. 4, https://search-proquest-com.proxy169.nclive.org

© Odetayo Odedere

 

A Letter to a Correctional Staff

 Incarcerated or not, offenders are human beings who were born free and should be treated with dignity. It is important to know and understand that they are human, and someday, some of them will be released back into the community. Therefore, human rights and privileges provided to them, either by our constitution, or by the Universal Declaration of Human Right (UDHR), should not be retained or withheld. According to the UDHR, adopted by the United Nations in (1948), “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights….” (Article 1). Even those who are incarcerated and those who have been accused of felony offences should be treated kindly and with dignity. It is very important that correctional staff area understand this.

People who are incarcerated have little or no ability to make their own decision, do whatever they wish to do, or live their lives as they pleased. The have physical and social limitation, they are unable to function as a capable human beings, and sometimes people, including correctional staff, look down on them. Sometimes human services professionals don’t have empathy and open mindedness for their clients like they supposed to; and sometimes, correctional staff treat incarcerated offenders like they are less of human.

When I first became a correctional officer, I judged and saw all inmates the same way. I believed they were all bad people, “gang bangers,” criminals, and guilty. However, after couple of years of experience in my line of work, I became a case manager, and I had the opportunity to work closely with them and on a personal level, my opinion and stereotype changed. I started to understand their story and began to have empathy. I realized that all incarcerated people are not bad people, not all of them are guilty of their offense, and above all, they are still human with emotions and feelings. 

Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Right (1948) states that “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” (Article 5). For human services workers to be professional in their line of work, they must understand and respect their client’s universal and constitutional human rights. Correctional staff must not ignore or forget that incarcerated offenders also have the right to be protected from cruel and degrading punishment or torture. To be professional, they must be fair and consistence in their in interactions with inmates.

Finally, leaders and policy makers in the department of corrections can also help make UDHR relevant to human services professionals by ensuring that their policies and procedures are in accordance with the UDHR. For instance, prison policy and procedures that does not protect inmates from cruel and unusual punishment should be changed or amended. Correctional staff should be trained, well informed, and be aware of the rights and privileges that are provided to inmates by the Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Right.

 

United Nations. (2014). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from            http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

https://www.facebook.com/tayo.odedere?sk=notes

Solution to Democratic Failure in Africa

Collective Identity and the Sense of Nationalism.
When African countries were created by the colonial leaders, the indigenous groups that were lumped together as one country refused to see and accept themselves as citizens of one country. Instead, they identified themselves as different group of people with different culture, value, and belief. In some African countries today, a strong collective identity still exists in different ethnic groups, among people that speak a different language, and among people that practice a different religion. Sakiko Fukuda noted in his article, Reclaiming Multiculturalism…, that in a multicultural and diverse country, a sense of identity and belonging to a group with shared values and other bonds of culture is important to individuals than a sense of belonging to the country (Fukuda 4).

Ethnic identity is still important to many Africans than their country’s identity. A survey was conducted in the region of northern Nigeria and southern Niger; this is during the decade of 1980s when military and totalitarian government was still rampant in Africa. This survey suggests that in African countries, many ethnic groups that found themselves shearing the same country with other ethnic groups feels less affinity for their neighbor ethnic groups. The survey can be found in Nationalism vs. Ethnic Identity, an article from the American Political Science Review. It notes that the Yardaji villagers in northern part of Nigeria did not see themselves compatible with other ethnic groups in Nigeria. The article states that “in Nigeria, Hausa villagers felt less affinity for non-Hausa countrymen (e.g., Igbo and Yoruba)” (Williams and David 395).

According to the history of Africa, African countries have experienced numerous civil wars that resulted from the action or effort of one ethnic group to breakaway from its country and become a separate nation. Diversity hinders Democratic ElectionBecause many African countries are very diverse in culture, language, and ethnicity, it is very difficult or almost impossible for them to practice a system of government that gives power to the people. This is because prejudice, racism, and rivalry exist among the people of the same country. For instance, one ethnic group may dislike another ethnic group because of an historical issue that occurred between them. An example of this is the 1994 Rwanda civil war that is commonly known as the Rwanda genocide. This violence has been described as a tribal war between Hutu and Tutsi that is rooted from the centuries-long competition for control of land and power (Valerie and Thomas, part 1).

In addition, an ethnic group may dislike another ethnic group because of its race, or it obvious cultural behavior. When there is prejudice, racism, and rivalry among the people of the same country, it is often difficult for them to come together and have a free and fair election. For instance, many elections that were conducted in numerous African countries were unsuccessful. Some elections resulted in riots and atrocity. At times, this may happen because one ethnic group does not want the elected leader of the country to come from another ethnic group. For example, ethnic “A” may believe that its needs would not be met, or its people would be abandon if the candidate from ethnic “B” becomes president. On June 12, 1993, a democratic election that was conducted in Nigeria was terminated. Other indigenous groups, especially the Hausa in the north, rejected the Yoruba candidate that won the election. This election turned into a crisis, and it led the country into several years of military rule.

Democratic election, in a diverse country, can also be hindered when one ethnic group sees itself as superior to other ethnic group, and therefore, believe that it should control the leadership and constitution of the country. The system of government that was previously practiced in South Africa can be a good example. It was a system of government that regarded the white people as superior to the black people and the people of color. Mandela noted in his autobiography that black people were excluded from participating in the election (Mandela 110). They were not allowed to choose their representatives, and they could not run for any government office. This system is known as apartheid, and it prevented a majority rule system from holding in South Africa for so many years. Finally, diversity in a country can hinder the establishment and maintenance of a democratic government in different many ways. Despite the fact that diversity, among the people of the same country, causes prejudice and segregation, it also hinders the successful outcome of a free and fair democratic election.

Coalitional Democracy

Because African countries are very diverse in all manner of life style does not means that they cannot practice a democratic system of government. A country with pluralist society can still practice a system of government that gives power to the people, a system of government that gives its people the freedom to choose their leader in a free and fair election, and a system of government in which there is check and balances in a way that makes everyone equal before the law. The majority of African countries need to practice an autonomous system of government in which a significant participation of all the indigenous groups are collated in the country’s decision and policy making. Arend Lijphart, the author of Democracy in Plural Societies and the initiator of “consociational” democracy suggested that “the political leaders of all significant segments of the plural society should cooperate in a grand coalition to govern the country” (Lijphart 25). He defined and described consociational democracy as system of government would work perfectly in a diverse country.Consociational DemocracyAccording to Lijphart, consociational democracy is a system of government in which the government of a plural society is run by a grand coalition of the political leaders of all segments of the plural society. For instance, there should be “a grand coalition cabinet in a parliamentary system, a ‘grand’ council or committee with important advisory functions, or a grand coalition of the president and other top officeholders in a presidential system… Finally, he recommended that there should be a high degree of autonomy for each segment to run its own internal affairs” (Lijphart 25).

In some African countries, a democratic system of government can work better if each ethnic group in the country has equal right to participate significantly in the government. “When all key players are brought on board by means of oversized coalitions or through the making of pacts between social groups, then the risk of conflict and civil war is reduced (Lane and Ersson 5). In a pluralist society like many African countries, every group, regardless of their size, race, or culture, should have equal right and opportunity to participate in the leadership of the country. Despite the differences that exist among the groups, the elites and political leaders of the groups should develop the spirit of cooperation and the habit to see themselves as people of one nation. That is, “the leaders should feel at lease some commitment to the maintenance of the unity of the country as well as a commitment to a democratic practice” (Lijphart 53).

Nevertheless, we cannot ignore the possibility that one group, in a diverse country, may wants to dominate the government and the leadership because of it obvious and outstanding wealth, military power, or population. Lijphart noted that “the temptation to shift from coalition to competition is bound to be very great, particularly for the party that believes it could win the majority of votes” (Lijphart 55). Therefore, he suggested that there should be a balance of power among the segments of a pluralist country. That is, all groups are minorities and majorities at the same time. FederalismAnother type democratic government, described by other political scientists like Jan-Erik Lane and Svante Ersson, is a federal system of government. A federal system of government can be defined as a system of autonomy in which there is division of power and authority between a central government and the regional governments. Each region has the freedom and right to elect its governor, draft its democratic constitution, and create its own judicial structure. However, in other to avoid competition, disagreement, and conflict among the regions, a federal system of government requires a central Supreme Court that would possess the power to settle disputes that may arise among the regional governments or between a region government and the central government.

In a pluralist country like many African countries, democracy can work better and successfully if each ethnic group is given the power to practice its own democratic constitution, elect its leader, and rule itself. However, at the same time, there must be a central government in which the top officeholders are composed of a grand coalition of elites and leaders from each ethnic group. The central authority must be structured in a way that check and balances of power would exist among the leaders. Furthermore, when a matter that concerns the constitution of the country as a whole arises, the central government must possess an exclusive power over the regional governments. This would reduce conflict, which normally leads to civil war, among the ethnic groups of African countries.